The present invention relates to spatial light modulators (light valves) and nonimpact printers, and, more particularly, to spatial light modulators with pixels formed of electronically addressable deflectable beams and arranged in a substantially linear array for use in electrophotographic printing.
Spatial light modulators (SLM) are transducers that modulate incident light in a spatial pattern corresponding to an electrical or optical input. The incident light may be modulated in its phase, intensity, polarization, or direction, and the light modulation may achieved by a variety of materials exhibiting various electrooptic or magnetoopotic effects and by materials that modulate light by surface deformation. SLMs have found numerous applications in the areas of optical information processing, projection displays, and electrostatic printing. See references cited in L. Hornbeck, 128.times.128 Deformable Mirror Device, 30 IEEE Tran. Elec. Dev. 539 (1983).
A well known SLM used for large bright electronic displays is the Eidophor, a system which uses an electrostatically dimpled oil film as the active optical element. See, E. Baumann, The Fischer large-screen projection system (Eidophor), 20 J. SMPTE 351 (1953). In this system a continuous oil film is scanned in raster fashion with an electron beam that is modulated so as to create a spatially periodic distribution of deposited charge within each resolvable pixel area on the oil film. This charge distribution results in the creation of a phase grating within each pixel by virtue of the electrostatic attraction between the oil film surface and the suporting substrate, which is maintained at constant potential. This attractive force causes the surface of the film to deform by an amount proportional to the qunatity of deposited charge. The modulated oil film is illuminated with spatially coherent light from a xenon arc lamp. Light incident to modulated pixels on the oil film is diffracted by the local phase gratings into a discrete set of regularly spaced orders which are made to fall on a schlieren stop consisting of a periodic array of alternating clear and opaque bars by part of the optical system. The spacing of the schlieren stop bars is chosen to match the spacing of the diffracted signal orders at the stop plane so that high optical throughput efficiency is achieved. Light that is incident to unmodulated regions of the light valve is blocked from reaching the projection lens by the opaque bars of the schlieren stop. Images formed of unmodulated areas on the light valve by the schlieren imaging system on the projection screen are therefore dark, while the phase perturbations introduced by the molulated electron beam are converted into bright spots of light at the screen by the schlieren projector. In spite of numerous technical difficulties associated with oil polymerization by electron bombardment and organic vapor contamination of the cathode, this type of oil-film system has been successfully developed to the point that it is the almost universally used system for a total light requirement of thousands of lumens at the screen. However, such systems are expensive, bulky, and have short-lived components.
A number of non-oil-film SLMs have also been developed and include deflectable element types, rotation of plane of polarization types, and light scattering types. these SLM types employ various effects such as deformation of reflective layers of metal, elastomer, or elastomer-photoconductor, and polarization and scattering of ferroelectrics, PLZT ceramics, and liquid crystals. For example, R. Sprague et al, Linear total internal reflection spatial light modulator for laser printing, 299 Proc. SPIE 68 (1981) and W. Turner and R. Sprague, Integrated total internal reflection (TIR) spatial light modulator for laser printing, 299 Proc. SPIE 76 (1982) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,380,373 describe a system for non-impact printing on a photosensitive medium in which laser light is formed into a line of illumination and passed through a linear array of light modulators and then imaged onto the photosensitive medium. The array is implemented as a total internal reflection spatial light modulator with the electrodes and drive electronics fabricated on an integrated drive element which is placed against the total reflection surface of an electrooptic crystal such as lithium niobate. The localized change in index of refraction produced by the fringing field between each two electrodes is read out with schlieren readout optics which image the TIR interface onto the photosensitive medium. This is a one dimensional image, and the photosensitive medium is rotated on a drum beneath the image of the linear array to generate the two dimenesional image (e.g., a page of text) for printing applications. However, the SLM (light valve) is highly susceptible to fabrication problems due to its hybrid nature. The fringing field strength, and hence the amount of light diffracted from modulated pixels, is sensitive to changes in the air gap thickness between the address electrodes and the electrooptic crystal surface of less than one tenth micron. Thus, even very small particles trapped between the crystal and electrode structure could cause illumination nonuniformity problems at the photosensitive medium. The system optical response for pixels located at the boundary between modulated and unmodulated areas of the light valve is also significantly lower than the response for pixels near the middle of a modulated region due to the nature of the addressing technique. A commercially available printer based on this technology has not been introduced to date.
M. Little et al., CCD-Addressed Liquid Crystal Light Valve, Proc. SID Symp. 250 (April 1982) describes a SLM with a CCD area array on the front side of a silicon chip and a liquid crystal array on the backside of the chip. Charge is input into the CCD until a complete frame of analog charge data has been loaded; the charge is then dumped to the backside of the chip where it modulates the liquid crystal. This device suffers from severe fixed pattern noise as well as resolution degradation due to the charge spreading from the front-to-back transfer.
Another SLM type which may be fabricated in both one and two dimensional arrays is the deformable mirror. Deformable mirrors may be subdivided into three classes: elastomers, membranes, and cantilever beams. In the elastomer approach a metallized elastomer is addressed by a spatially varying voltage that produces surface deformation through compression of the elastomer. Because of the address voltage requirements in the order of one or two hundred volts, the elastomer is not a good candidate for integration with a high-density silicon address circuit. See, generally, A. Lakatos and R. Bergen, TV projection display using an amorphous-Se-type RUTICON light valve, 24 IEEE Tran. Elec. Dev. 930 (1977).
Membrane deformable mirrors come in a variety of types. One type is essentially a substitute for the oil film of the Eidophor system discussed above. In this system a thin reflective membrane is mounted to the faceplate of a cathode ray tube (CRT) by means of a support grid structure. Addressing is by a raster scanned electron beam as with the Eidophor. The charge deposited on the glass faceplate of the CRT by the electron beam electrostatically attracts the membrane which is held at a constant volatge. This attractive force causes the memebrane to sag into the well formed by the grid structure, thereby forming a miniature spherical mirror at each modulated pixel location. The light difracted from this type of modulated pixel is concentrated into a relatively narrow cone that is rotationally symmetric about the specularly reflected beam. This type of light valve is thus used with a schlieren stop that consists of a single central obsucration positioned and sized so as to block the image of the light source that is formed by the optical system after specular reflection from unmodulated areas of the light valve. Modulated pixels give rise to a circular patch of light at the schlieren stop plane that is larger than the central obscuration, but centered on it. The stop efficiency, or fraction of the modulated pixel energy that clears the schlieren stop, is generally somewhat lower for projectors based on deformable membranes than it is for the oil film Eidophor projector. Further, such membrane deformable mirror systems have at least two major problems. High voltages are required for addressing the relatively stiff reflective membrane, and slight misalignments between the eletron beam raster and the pixel support grid structure lead to addressing problems . Such misalignments would cause image blurring and nonuniformity in display brightness.
Another type of membrane deformable mirror is described in L. Hornbeck, 30 IEEE Tran. Elec. Dev. 539 (1983) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,441,791 and is a hybrid integrated circuit consisting of an array of metallized polymer mirrors bonded to a silicon address circuit. The underlying analog address circuit, which is separated by an air gap from the mirror elements, causes the array of mirrors to be displaced in selected pixels by electrostatic attraction. The resultant two-dimensional displacement pattern yields a corresponding phase modulation pattern for reflected light. This pattern may be converted into analog intensity variations by schlieren projection techniques or used as the input transducer for an optical information processor. However, the membrane deformable mirror has manufacturability problems due to the susceptibility to defects that result when even small, micron sized paticles are trapped between the membrane and the underlyiong support structure. The membrane would form a tent over these trapped particles, and the lateral extent of such tents is much larger than the size of the particle itself, and these tents would in turn be imaged as bright spots by a schlieren imaging system.
A cantilever beam deformable mirror is a micromechanical array of deformable cantilever beams which can be electrostatically and individually deformed by some address means to modulate incident light in a linear or areal pattern. Used in conjunction with the proper projection optics, a cantilever beam deformable mirror can be employed for displays, optical information processing, and electrophotographic printing. An early version with metal cantilever beams fabricated on glass by vacuum evaporation appears in U.S. Pat. No. 3,600,798. This device has fabrication problems which include the alignment of the front and back glass substrates arising from the device's nonintegrated architecture.
A cantilever beam deformable mirror device is described in R. Thomas et al, The Mirror-Matrix Tube: A Novel Light Valve for Projection Displays, 22 IEEE Tran. Elec. Dev. 765 (1975) and U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,886,310 and 3,896,338. This device is fabricated as follows: a thermal silicon dioxide layer is grown on a silicon on sapphire substrate; the oxide is patterned in a cloverleaf array of four cantilever beams joined in the middle. The silicon is isotropically wet etched until the oxide is undercut, leaving within each pixel four oxide cantilever beams supported by a central silicon support post. The cloverleaf array is then metallized with aluminum for reflectivity. The aluminum which is deposited on the sapphire substrate forms a reference grid electrode which is held at a DC bias. The device is addressed by a scanning electron beam which deposits a charge pattern on the cloverleaf beams causing the beams to be deformed by electrostatic attraction towards the reference grid. Erasure is achieved by negatively biasing a closely spaced external grid and flooding the device with low-energy electrons. A schlieren projector is used to convert the beam deformation into brightness variations at the projection screen. A significant feature of this device is the cloverleaf geometry which leads to beam deflection in a direction rotated forty-five degrees from the openings between the beams; this permits use of a simple cross shaped schlieren stop to block out the fixed diffraction background signal without attenuating the modulated diffraction signal. The device was fabricated with a pixel density of five hundred pixels per inch with beams deflectable up to four degrees. The optics employed a 150 watt xenon arc lamp, reflective schlieren optics and a 2.5 by 3.5 foot screen with a gain of five. Four hundred TV lines of resolution were demonstrated with a screen brightness of thirty-five foot-lumens, a contrast ratio of fifteen to one, and a beam diffraction efficiency of forty-eight percent. Write times of less than 1/30 second were achieved and erase times were as short as 1/10 of the write time. However, the device has problems, including degradation of resolution from scanning errors, poor manufacturing yield, and no advantage over conventional projection cathode ray tubes. That is, the scan-to-scan positioning accuracy is not high enough to reproducibly write on individual pixels. The resultinig loss of resolution forces at least a four fold increase in the number of pixels required to maintain the same resolution compared to comparably written phosphor. Also, the device yield is limited by the lack of an etch stop for the cloverleaf support post, the wet etching of the beams leading to beam breakage, and the need to evaporate normally tensile aluminum in a state of zero stress on the oxide beams. Further, the device offers no apparent cost or performance advantage over conventional projection CRTs.
Cantilever beam deformable mirrors integrated on silicon with addressing circuitry, thus eliminating the electron beam addressing with its high voltage circuitry and vacuum envelopes of the previously described cantilever device, appear in K. Petersen, Micromechanical light modulator array fabricated on silicon, 31 Appl. Phys. Lett. 521 (1977) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,229,732. The first of these references describes a 16 by 1 array of diving board-shaped cantilever beams fabricated as follows: an epitaxial layer of &lt;100&gt;-oriented silicon (either p or n) or thickness of about 12 microns is grown on a p substrate (or buried layer); the epilayer is oxidized to a thickness of about 0.5 micron and covered with a Cr-Au film of thickness about 500 A. The Cr-Au is etched away to form contact pads and address lines and to define the diving board metallization. The oxide is etched away in a comb pattern around the metallization in a second masking step. Finally, the silicon itself is etched in a solution of ethylenediamine and pyrocatechol at 120 degrees C. If the proper orientation of the mask with respect to the crystalline axes is maintained, the metal-coated oxide dividing boards will be undercut by the etch and freed from the silicon. Since the etch is anisotropic, further lateral etching will be stopped by the &lt;111&gt; planes defining the rectangular envelope of the comb pattern. In addition, the etchant is inhibited by p+ material, so the depth of the well beneath the diving boards is defined by the thickness of the epilayer. When a dc voltage is applied between the substrate and the diving board metallization, the thin oxide diving board will be electrostatically deflected downward into the etched well. Diving boards of length 106 microns and width 25 microns showed a threshold voltage of about 66 volts.
The second reference (U.S. Pat. No. 4,229,732) describes devices fabricated in a manner similar to the diving board device (a buried p+ layer as an etch stop for forming the wells underneath metallized silicon dioxide cantilever beams) but has a different architecture; namely, the cantilever beams are in the shape of square flaps hinged at one corner, the flaps form a two dimensional array instead of the one dimensional row of diving boards, and the wells underneath the flaps are not connected so that addressing lines for the flaps may be formed on the top surface of the silicon between the rows and columns of flaps. Of course, the corner hinging of the flaps derives from the cloverleaf architecture of U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,886,310 and 3,896,338, but the full cloverleaf architecture could not be used because this would preclude the surface addressing lines since cloverleaf flaps are hinged to a central post isolated from the silicon surface. Further, these devices have problems including poor resolution and low efficiency due to density limitations and the small fractional active area, low manufacturing yield, degradation of contrast ratio due to diffraction effects from the address circuitry, and residual image due to the charging effects of the oxide flap. More particularly, the addressing circuitry is squeezed around the active area (flaps) because no option exists for placing the address circuitry under the active area due to the wells being formed by etching away the epilayer down to the p+ etch stop. Thus the active area is reduced substantially together with the diffraction efficiency. This means more lamp power is required for the same screen brightness. Because the address circuitry requires additional area, the pixel size is increased far beyond the flap area with a resulting decrease in achievable resolution. The wet etching required to form the wells leads to low electrical and mechanical yield; indeed, wet cleanups, such as after dicing into chips, destroy flaps and diving boards because during the spin-rinse/dry cycle the water trapped under the beam breaks the beam as it is spun from the surface. If the water is instead evaporated from the surface it leaves behind surface residues which can increase surface leakage currents contributing to erratic device operation. Also, the addressing circuitry being on the silicon surface is exposed to the incident light to be modulated and creates unwanted diffraction effects from the transistor gates plus lowers the contrast ratio. In addition, light leakage into the address structure produces photogenerated charge and reduces storage time. Lastly, the oxide/metal flap has the insulating side facing the well and will charge up due to the intense electric fields which exist across the well; this produces a residual ("burn-in") image. The AC drive required to eliminate this residual image problem cannot be supplied by the NMOS drive circuitry described. Further, if the flap is deflected past the maximum stable deflection, then it will collapse and stick to the bottom of the well. Thus, voltages over the collapse voltage must be absolutely avoided.
A variation of the cantilever beam approach appears in K. Petersen, Silicon Torsional Scanning Mirror, 24 IBM J. Res. Devp. 631 (1980) and M. Cadman et al, New Micromechanical Display Using Thin Metallic Films, 4 IEEE Elec. Dev. Lett. 3 (1983). This approach forms metallic flaps which are connected to the surrounding reflective surface at two opposed corners and operate by twisting the flaps along the axes formed by the connections. The flaps are not formed monolithically with the underlying addressing substrate, but are glued to it in a manner analogous to the deformable membrane devices mentioned above.
The cantilever beam references discussed above all suggest that schlieren projection optical systems be used with the cantilever beam devices. But such systems have limitations in terms of attainable optical performance. First, the aperture diameter of the imaging lens must be larger than is necessary to pass the signal energy along. Hence the speed of the lens must be relatively high (or, equivalently, its f-number must be relatively low) to pass all the signal energy around the central schlieren stop obscuration. In addition, the signal passes through the outer portion of the lens pupil in this imaging configuration. Rays of light emanating from any given point on the SLM and passing through the outermost areas of an imager lens pupil are the most difficult ones to bring to a well-corrected focus during the optical design of any imaging lens. When the outer rays are brought under good control, the rays passing through the center of the imager lens are automatically well-corrected. Hence, a greater level of optical design complexity is required of the imaging lens. Second, the field angle over which the imaging lens can form well-corrected images of off-axis pixels on a cantilever beam SLM is also restricted. Any lens design task involves a compromise between the speed of the lens and the field angle it can cover with good image quality. Fast lenses tend to work over small fields, while wide angle lenses tend to be relatively slow. Since the schlieren imager must be well-corrected over its entire aperture, and since this aperture is larger in diameter than is required to pass the image forming light, the field angle that can be covered by the lens is smaller than it could be if a different imaging configuration could be devised in which the signal was passed through the center of an unobscured, smaller diameter lens. Lastly, for an imager lens having a given finite speed, the use of the schlieren stop configuration also limits the size of the light source that can be utilized. This in turn limits the irradiance level that can be delivered to a projection screen or a photoreceptor at the image of a deflected pixel. This irradiance level, or the delivered power per unit area, depends on the product of the radiance of the light source, the transmittance of the optical system, and the solid angle of the cone of image forming rays of light. The source radiance is determined only by the particular lamp that is used. The optics transmittance depends on the stop efficiency for the particular SLM/schlieren stop configuration and surface transmission losses. But the solid angle of the image forming cone of light is directly proportional to the area of the imager lens pupil that is filled with signal energy. The use of a schlieren stop that obscures the central area of the imager lens pupil limits the usable pupil area and thus the image plane irradiance level that can be obtained for a lens of a given speed and a source of a given radiance; this is in addition to the fundamental irradiance limitation that the maximum usable cone of light has an opening angle equal to the beam deflection angle.
Thus the known cantilever beam SLMs have problems including addressing circuitry limiting the fractional active area of the pixels, processing steps giving low yields, sensitivity to film stress in the beams, beam insulator charging effects, lack of overvoltage protection against beam collapse, performance not compatible with low cost optics design, and low contrast ratio due to non planarized addressing circuitry on the surface.
Further, the known nonimpact printer systems have problems including use of SLMs with inherently low manufacturing yield and with complicated optics.